U.S Attitudes Towards Transgender People

U.S Attitudes Towards Transgender People In the United States, there are unassigned â€Å"rules† and standards of which people are expected to conform to, gender being one of them. Throughout history people have only known two types of sex, female and male, but what about other gender identities?   People tend to develop attitudes about those who identify themselves as the opposite gender. These attitudes are influenced by a variety of factors: religion, morals, political ideology, just to name a few. I wanted to see what really influences the attitudes the nation holds towards transgender people. The articles I discuss address U.S. attitudes towards those individuals and provide insight of why they feel have those attitudes. The article, â€Å"Heterosexuals’ Attitudes Towards Transgender People: Finding from a National Probability Sample of U.S Adults,† by Aaron T. Norton and Gregory M. Herek, introduces a study that describes the correlations of men’s and women’s attitudes towards transgender people. They surveyed 2,281 participants, and the survey focused on five hypotheses, each hypothesis focusing on different aspects that contribute towards heterosexual men and women attitudes towards transgender people. The first, â€Å"heterosexuals’ attitudes toward transgender people are positively correlated with their attitudes toward sexual minorities† (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.5). The participants attitudes were measured with a series of feeling thermometers, and the participants were told, â€Å"using a scale from zero to 100, please tell us your personal feelings toward each of the following groups†¦ The warmer or more favorable you feel toward the group, the higher the number you should give it,† vis-versa. (Norton & Herek, 2010, p. 6). If the participant felt neither warm or cold toward the group, they would rate it 50 (Norton & Herek, 2012, p. 6). The participants were also told to use a 5- point scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, for Attitudes Towards Lesbians (ATL) and Attitudes Towards Gay Men (ATG) (Norton & Herek, 20102, p.6). The higher the scores indicated higher levels of sexual prejudice. The results for this hypothesis show that transgender people are highly correlated with the four sexual minority groups: gay men, lesbian women, bisexual men, and bisexual women, and they are also negatively correlated with the scores of the ATG and ATL. (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.7). Like the first hypotheses, the four-other focus on similar aspects that correlates towards the negative attitudes people have towards transgender people. The second hypothesis states, â€Å"they [attitudes] are more negative among men than women,† was proven to be true (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.4). According to the study heterosexual man have more negative ratings to all â€Å"men† targets (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.8). Men also scored higher than women, meaning greater prejudice on both the ATG and ATL scale. Hypothesis three stated that â€Å"to the extent heterosexual respondents endorse a binary, conception of gender, their attitudes toward transgender people are more negative† (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.4). 46.5% agreed that â€Å"there is not enough respect for their natural divisions between the sexes,† while 19.5% disagreed, and 34.0% reported they were â€Å"in the middle.† In all the results concluded that attitudes towards transgender people w ere correlated with endorsement of gender binary beliefs (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.8). â€Å"Transgender attitudes are correlated with the same social psychological variables that have consistently been observed to correlate with heterosexuals† attitudes toward sexual minorities, is what the fourth hypothesis stated† (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.4). This hypothesis looks at four different correlations: authoritarianism, political ideology, religion, and personal contact with sexual minorities of attitudes toward transgender people. I focused on three of the four, political ideology, religion, and personal contact with sexual minorities. 48.2% described their political ideology was moderate, while 26.5% were liberal and 30.7% were conservative (Norton & Herek, 2012, p. 9). The conservative respondents gave lower thermometer rating (25.39%), followed by moderate (32.18%), then liberals (39.23%), thus meaning that conservative individuals had more negative, prejudice attitudes toward transgender people (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.9). The second of the four correlations I focused on was religion. It was found that women who have â€Å"a great deal† of religious guidance in their day-to-day living, had transgender ratings that were significantly more negative (Norton & Herek, 2012, p. 9). The results also concluded that prior contact with gay or lesbian people meant that thermometer scores were higher, less prejudice, than respondents who had lacked such contact (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.9). The fifth and last hypothesis that the survey tested was, â€Å"men’s attitudes toward both groups are linked I similar ways to the variables specified in hypotheses 3 and 4 If sexual prejudice is controlled, between those variables and men’s transgender attitudes should be reduced to no significance consistent with previous findings.† (Norton & Herek, 2012, p. 4). While hypothesis five had little support, it concluded that heterosexual menâ€⠄¢s attitudes toward transgender people and their political and gender beliefs reduced when their attitudes toward gay men were statistically controlled (Norton & Herek, 2012, p. 110). It also concluded that with ATG scores controlled, women’s attitudes were predicted by â€Å"authoritarianism and anti-egalitarianism,† and so were men’s; showing gender differences in the psychological roots of transgender attitudes were not observed (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.11).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Aaron Norton and Gregory Herek’s article about the attitudes heterosexuals have about transgender people was very interesting, I found that the study focused on some of the main aspects that influence heterosexuals’ attitudes towards transgender people in the U.S. I also gained knowledge about why people may have such attitudes. I feel that the content included throughout this article is very relevant with some of the topics we have discussed in class, such as, ‘ethic, religions, and sexuality’, and gender identity as a whole. The article included many finding that I agree with. One being that, â€Å"attitudes towards transgender people were more negative among heterosexual men than heterosexual women† (Norton & Herek, 2012, p.1). I believe that to be true, statistics prove it, but also though out the community I live in. I have observed the attitudes and stigmatizations transgender people face in my community, and I have witness more negative attitu des coming from the heterosexual men that I have contact with. I also agree that being exposed to more sexual minorities, leads to people having less sexual prejudice toward transgender people. I have found that by having contact with those who identify as lesbian or gay, makes me more accepting of transgender people. I believe that the survey as a whole helps readers gain more knowledge about the prejudice attitudes people, especially heterosexuals, have towards transgender individuals within the Unites States. The article, â€Å"Boys Don’t Cry’ or Do They? Attitudes Toward and Beliefs About Transgender Youth,† by Hogler Elischberger, Jessica Glazier, Eric Hill, and Lynn Baker-Verduzco present a survey study that examines the attitudes U.S. adults have toward transgender children and adolescents. There were 281 individuals (128 male, 152 females, and 1 missing information) that participated in the survey and reported that had â€Å"generally favorable attitudes toward transgender minors† (Elischberger, Glazier, Hill, Verduzco, 2016, p. 199). The survey first assesses the attitude adults had toward transgender people by asking a series of questions. It then assesses their behavior intentions with two hypothetical situations. The study concluded with the ‘presumed causes of gender atypicality, where the participants were asked to indicate how strongly biological (nature) and environmental (nurture) cause affect atypical behavior (Elischberger et. al., 2016, p .203). The article, â€Å"Boys Don’t Cry’ or Do They? Attitudes Toward and Beliefs About Transgender Youth,† by Hogler Elischberger, Jessica Glazier, Eric Hill, and Lynn Baker-Verduzco presents a survey study that examines the attitudes U.S. adults have toward transgender children and adolescents. There were 281 individuals (128 male, 152 females, and 1 missing information) that participated in the survey and reported that had â€Å"generally favorable attitudes toward transgender minors† (Elischberger, Glazier, Hill, Verduzco, 2016, p. 199). The survey first assesses the attitude adults had toward transgender people by asking a series of questions. It then assesses their behavior intentions with two hypothetical situations. The study concluded with the ‘presumed causes of gender atypicality, where the participants were asked to indicate how strongly biological (nature) and environmental (nurture) cause affect atypical behavior (Elischberger et. al., 2016, p.203).      The survey first assesses the participants attitudes, with a series of attitude statements. The participants used a 10-point Likert type scale ranging from 1, completely disagree, and 10, completely agree to see rate their attitudes toward the list of statements provided.   The statements given included â€Å"Personally, I view this gender atypical behavior as a problem because Six of these statements were provided that differed in terms of the reason cited for the disapproval: it is against my morals, it contradicts my religious views, Bit will hurt the child’s [teenager’s] current relationships with their peers, Bit will be a bad influence on other children [teenagers],it may have an effect on the child’s [teenager’s] sexual orientation it goes against nature. A seventh option, the child’s behavior is not wrong for any one specific reason, it is just inappropriate† (Elischberger et. al., 2016 p.201). These statements allowed the participants to express their attitudes without giving a specific reason. The attitudes result for this part of the survey, although relatively low, showed that attitudes were less positive in the participants who had religious affiliation, conservative social-political views, and stronger conformity to certain traditional gender norms; however, the endorsement level of participants was highest (7.34 out of 10) with the statement, â€Å"I do not find the behavior a problem† (Elischberger et. al., 2016, p. 202). Thus, meaning that the majority of participates did not have a problem with transgender people. The second part of the survey consisted of how participants might act in two hypothetical situations that involved a gender-atypical child or adolescent. The scenarios were (a) using the restroom appropriate for their gender opposed to sex, and (b) sharing a cabin/room on a school trip with peers of the same gender (Elischberger et. al., 2016, p.203). The participants were asked to put themselves into the positions of the: parent of the nonconforming child, the parent of one of the child’s peers, the child’s teacher, and a school administer (Elischberger et. al., 2016, p.203). The response ranged on a 1(lowest and 10 (highest) possible scores, with higher numbers indicating a â€Å"stronger intent to limit gender expression in each scenario† (Elischberger et. al., 2016, p. 203). On average, all the average results ranged between 4 and 6. In the restroom scenario, the results indicated that if the participant was the parent of the transgender child they would more than likely want their child to use the restroom of which they identified with, however, if they were in the administrator position they would be less likely to want that child to use their assigned restroom (Elischberger et. al., 2016, p.203). In the third part of the survey was ‘Presumed Causes of Gender Atypically.’ This part consisted of asking the participants to indicate how strongly they believed different factors cause gender atypical behaviors. The participants determined whether biological (nature) causes genetics, hormones, and brain development, or, environmental (nurture) cause: mother, father, media, and other environment caused gender atypicality (Elischberger et. al., 2016, p. 203). The results showed that on average the participants agreed that environmental factors played more of a role in gender atypicality than biological factors. It shows that the participants believed other environmental factors and media were the highest causes of gender atypicality.   I find the research done in the â€Å"Boys Don’t Cry’ or Do They? Attitudes Toward and Beliefs About Transgender Youth,† to be very interesting. I believe that I am, and am becoming, more open to allowing transgender people express their gender identity. I agree that the media and environmental factors play a key role in gender atypicality, but I also believe that it comes from within. This article includes some stuff that we have discussed in class, but we have yet to go into depth about transgender people, so I am not able to find a lot of connections between the class content specifically. Discussing the research that is found in this article would be beneficial for a larger population because it assesses the attitudes of people who believe that they are â€Å"okay† with transgender children and adolescence, and determine if they actually are. Overall, both articles included information that was accurate to how the U.S. populations feel towards transgender people. They both state that being more religious and having more conservative values correlate to people having more prejudice attitudes towards transgender people. If I were able to conduct my own study or include a category, I would include children’s point of view. I know they would not fully understand all the factors that go into nonconforming or transgender individuals, but I believe it would be interesting to do a study that focused on how their mindset changes over the years about the topic and what, if any, biological and environmental aspects contribute to their attitudes.   References Elischberger, H. B., Glazier, J. J., Hill, E. D., & Verduzco-Baker, L. (2016, March 22). Boys Dont Cry-or Do They? Adult Attitudes Toward and Beliefs About Transgender Youth. Retrieved March 23, 2018, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-016-0609-y Norton, A. T., & Herek, G. M. (2013, June 01). Heterosexuals Attitudes Toward Transgender   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   People: Findings from a National Probability Sample of U.S. Adults. Retrieved March 22, 2018, from https://www.scholars.northwestern.edu/en/publications/heterosexuals-attitudes-toward-transgender-people-findings-from-a

Intermolecular Forces Essay

Intermolecular forces exist between independent particles, such as atoms, ions, or molecules. They can be forces of either attraction or repulsion. The amount of charge, how it is distributed, and the length of time that a charge distribution exists can affect the strength of intermolecular forces. And despite having variable force strengths, all intermolecular forces are considered weak compared to chemical bonds, or intramolecular forces. Chemical bonds are not only stronger; they are also more permanent. The energy costs involved in breaking chemical bonds are much higher than ones needed to overcome intermolecular forces. There are five types of intermolecular forces: ion-ion forces, ion-dipole forces, ion-induced dipole/dipole-induced dipole forces, dipole-dipole forces, and London dispersion forces. Generally, we expect ion-ion forces to be the strongest, followed by ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, and then London dispersion forces. Of course, many exceptions to this hierarchy of strength exist. In order to properly differentiate between these forces, it is important to know what must be present in order for each interaction to occur. Ion-ion forces only involve ions in mixtures of substances. Ion-ion forces can be either attractive (cation-anion) or repulsive (cation-cation/anion-anion) and the strength varies depending on charge and size. Ion-dipole forces occur in mixtures between ions and polar molecules. The anions gravitate toward positive regions of dipoles while the cations gravitate toward negative regions. With dipoles, the strength of the forces depends upon the polarity of the molecule (or charge magnitude) and how compact the molecule is. If a molecule is more compact, there is better access to the center of charge and stronger attraction to its neighbors. Induced dipoles occur when nonpolar molecules come in the vicinity of polar or charged particles and become polar themselves. As an ion or dipole moves closer to the nonpolar molecule, a shift occurs in its electrons, throwing off its nonpolar symmetry and making it polar. Depending on what produces this change, it will have either attractive ion-induced dipole or dipole-induced dipole forces. These may occur in pure substances or mixtures. Dipole-dipole forces may occur between the polar molecules of a pure substance, or between two different polar molecules. The positive regions of one dipole will attract the negative regions of another and vice versa. The dipoles tend to align in a way that increases the number of attractions and reduces the number of repulsions. The strength of the force can vary with polarity: the more polar the molecules are, the more strongly they interact with each other. Hydrogen bonding is considered a special case of dipole-dipole interaction. While dipole-dipole forces are generally considered to be fairly weak, hydrogen bonding is unusually strong, especially in water. This particular type of bonding occurs when a hydrogen atom is involved in an extremely polar covalent bond, such as H-N, H-O, or H-F, and is attracted to the lone pair of a highly electronegative atom (either F, N, or O) on a separate molecule. These may also occur in pure substances. The weakest of the intermolecular forces are the London dispersion forces. These forces occur between atoms or molecules of nonpolar substances and are present in both pure substances and mixtures. A way to predict the types of intermolecular forces present is by looking at the chemical formula, specifically whether the interacting species are polar or nonpolar. Ion-dipole forces occur between ions and polar molecules. Dipole-dipole forces (including hydrogen bonding) only occur between polar molecules. Induced dipoles occur between polar and nonpolar molecules. If there were only nonpolar molecules, they would be London dispersion forces (but keep in mind that these forces also exist in every other kind of interaction). In the case of ion-ion forces, polarity does not matter in identifying forces, as it only involves ions and would be fairly obvious. Knowing what we do about intermolecular forces and their relative strengths, we can make a few assumptions about which forces would be present in different phases under standard conditions. Being that solids are the most difficult to break apart, we would assume that the strongest intermolecular forces (ion-ion, hydrogen bonding) would be found within them. Liquids have a greater ability to flow because the intermolecular forces are weaker than in the solid phase, so we would assume that these would involve ion-dipole and induced dipole forces. We would also assume that the weakest intermolecular forces correspond to the gas phase, meaning dipole-dipole and London dispersion forces. Intermolecular forces influence physical properties of each phase: gas, liquid, and solid. They can cause real gases to deviate from ideal gas behavior. They can also govern the motion of molecules; molecules in gases move constantly and randomly, they slide past each other freely in liquids, and vibrate in fixed positions in solids. The heats required to melt a solid (heat of fusion) and to vaporize a liquid (heat of vaporization) change depending on the strengths of the intermolecular forces. In liquids, water will form beads upon contact with waxed surfaces (e. . car hoods) because of the imbalance of how intermolecular forces act upon surface molecules and the symmetrical distribution of forces experienced by interior molecules. So, the stronger the intermolecular forces, the larger the surface tension. Capillary action is another example of the effect of the imbalance of intermolecular forces. If the intermolecular interactions between the particles of a liquid and a solid are stronger than the intermolecular forces acting between the liquid’s own particles, the liquid near the walls of the solid will rise. Other properties of liquids that can be affected by intermolecular forces are boiling point and critical temperature and pressure. In crystalline solids, the stronger the forces are, the more rigid the crystal is. This is because the stronger intermolecular forces in the solid fix the particles in place. Overall, understanding intermolecular forces is essential to understand gas, liquid, and solid phases, as well as the phase changes between them.

Earth Is A 1998 Indian Period Drama Film Directed By Deepa...

Earth is a 1998 Indian period drama film directed by Deepa Mehta. The story is set in Lahore in the time period directly before and during the partition of India in 1947. The film recounts the holocaust of Partition through the eyes of Lenny, a crippled Parsi girl. Lenny s parents live in Lahore with an army of servants, including the delectable ayah, a beautiful Hindu woman, Shanta. The movie starts with Lenny revisiting her childhood days as a student coloring her drawing, and remembering the downfall of British Empire in India as she states something which indicates the theme of story that it will portray for next 101 minutes and upon which the story will build around. The words she stated accounts as- â€Å"Hindu, Muslim and Sikhs who had lived together as one entity for centuries suddenly started to clamor for pieces of India for themselves. The arbitrary line of division the British would draw to carve up India in August of 1947 would scar the subcontinent forever.† This dialogue clearly states that India was very near to getting its independence from the British Rule and for the final time the nation might have to become a victim to British’s much famous â€Å"DIVIDE RULE† policy which will blow the nation into partition forming 2 separate countries- INDIA PAKISTAN and in the dialogue she clearly predicts the ill effects people will have to face at the time of partition as she says that it would scar the subcontinent forever. Such a line of difference would be createdShow MoreRelatedEarth Is A 1998 Indian Period Drama Film Directed By Deepa Mehta2714 Words   |  11 PagesEARTH Earth is a 1998 Indian period drama film directed by Deepa Mehta. The story is set in Lahore in the time period directly before and during the partition of India in 1947. The film recounts the holocaust of Partition through the eyes of Lenny, a crippled Parsi girl. Lenny s parents live in Lahore with an army of servants, including the delectable ayah, a beautiful Hindu woman, Shanta. The movie starts with Lenny revisiting her childhood days as a student coloring her drawing, and rememberingRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesopening decades of the twentieth century and a major break from the prevailing dynamics of the cold war. In addition to the problems posed for conceptualizing the twentieth century as a discrete era of world history due to overlap with the preceding period and disconcertingly radical shifts in the course of global development in the 1900s, contradictory forces and trends, which perhaps more than any other attribute distinguish this turbulent phase of the human experience, render it impervious to

Political Scandals During The Twentieth Century - 986 Words

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The significance of this is that, while corruption had no doubt existed prior to this period, the sheer scale of this new corruption and the magnitude of the resulting political scandals was unlike anything America had witnessed before. Muckraking writer Lincoln Steffens, in his book The Shame of the Cities, described the problem of the political sphere of his time by stating: â€Å"politics is business. That s what s the matter with it. That s what s the matter with everything.† (Steffens 2) Something clearly needed to be done to stem the rising corruption and action came as the progressive movementShow MoreRelatedColonization Of The Americas, India, And Australia1923 Words   |  8 PagesBritain during the nineteenth century. European colonizers found themselves amongst natives, people they not only misunderstood but sought to reform in order to fit the British hegemony during this period. 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The Media And Television Influences People s View Of Reality

The theory that suggests the media and television influences people’s view of reality. George Gerbner and Larry Gross and a few other associates developed cultivation theory in 1976. â€Å"Cultivation Theory postulates that as individuals are exposed to more of a certain kind of television programs, each exposure plants sees that grow into a perspective that is largely influenced by the themes presented in the programs,† (Gerbner p.15). There are different assumptions regarding the Cultivation Theory and why it is believed accurate. One being, television is technically different from other forms of media because it tends to be more influential, or that television shapes ones beliefs as well as attitude about other people and society itself, and that television does not show reality, but tends to create an alternate reality. Cultivation theory focuses mainly on television and not on other aspects of media because television is related to almost all ages and has been arou nd longer than other mediums. Television is a primary source of socialization as well everyday information. It is a centralized system of storytelling via news, dramas, commercials, and much more. The difference in the level of cultivation between various television viewers is known as cultivation differential. The different types of televisions viewers are heavy and light. Heavy viewers tend to watch an average of four or more hours of television per day. A light viewer watches an average of two or less hoursShow MoreRelatedWhy is important to study the media, rather than simply consume it?1631 Words   |  7 PagesThe media is a dynamic entity inherent in society that is both powerful and important. It demonstrates this by playing a vital role in the development of a person s perspective on political, economic and socio-cultural issues. 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These days, it seems like producers are willing to turn almost anything into a an hour long weekly series. Another growing concern that may indirectly promote stereotypes is the issue of privacy in reality TV. It is said that â€Å"participants in reality shows have openly admitted that giving the public access to the most personal moments of their livesRead MoreFactors that Contribute to the Popularity of Reality Shows on TV874 Words   |  4 Pagesand engagement of audience with reality television. The study aims to investigate which factors influencing on television viewers’ decision to vote and also provide an exploration on their psychological side which may be vital for understanding their interactive behaviors. In the context of greater interaction between the programs and its audiences has been stimulating by television producers, it is significant to research this interactive form of reality television that encourages deeper audience

Fight Against World Poverty Free Essays

Fight Against World Poverty: How Markets and Governments Can Deal with Poverty (Author deleted) December 20, 2010 Introduction This paper presents the current thoughts on the fight against poverty, specifically the views of different economists on the role of markets and government on this issue. The discussion begins with Hazlitt’s ideas, based on the U. S. We will write a custom essay sample on Fight Against World Poverty or any similar topic only for you Order Now experience. It is then followed by the works of other key economists focusing mainly on the underdeveloped world. Lastly, some concluding opinions are offered. Reducing Poverty in the Developed WorldHazlitt (1973), in his book The Conquest of Poverty makes the case for free enterprise system (Capitalism) as the solution to poverty. [1] Through a thorough analysis, Hazlitt outlines various remedies that have already been tried and those that have been suggested for the future poverty relief in the United States. All these fixes translate into government interventions. The most common interventions discussed by the author are establishing minimum wage rates, creating labor unions, developing welfare programs and job programs, and redistributing income.In the book, and as discussed below, the author analyzes why each of these actions not only fails to reduce poverty, but actually worsen it. Minimum wage actually increases unemployment, and specially the unemployment of those that need the most, the unskilled workers. Why is that? Simply because by forcing the employer to pay a worker more than he/she is worth, it makes it unprofitable for empl oyers to hire those workers, and therefore forces them into unemployment. The minimum wage logic also applies to labor unions.Labor unions, without realizing it, are an anti-labor force. Wages, like any other price, are determined in the free market by supply and demand, and the demand for labor is determined by the labor productivity. Thus, if union wages exceed what employers consider to be the employees’ worth in productivity, the employers are forced to reduce the work force; otherwise, they would be employing them at a loss. So, as union wages are increased, there is a point where employers cannot afford them, and get rid of them.In situations where employers cannot reduce the work force because of labor agreements, eventually they will shut down the operation. In addition, it is only expected that the next marginal capital will either not be invested or will be invested where labor is cheaper. Thus, the bottom-line is that arbitrary labor wages, which typically are excessive, can only result in work reductions. Now, if instead the wages would be set by the market, the employers have an incentive to hire them, increasing employment.Welfare programs have continued to balloon exponentially since their inception, not only in number but also in cost. To appease the voters, government consistently enlarges these programs without regard to the consequences. Thus, they have led to higher taxes and chronic deficits because taxes have not been able to keep up with the cost of these programs, thus the government has had to resort to printing paper money, creating chronic inflation. These programs are like a chronic disease.Once on welfare, people typically stay on it. Moreover, those on unemployment compensation have little incentive to go back to work. Lastly, there is uncontrollable fraud and cheating among those on relief. Many feel that it is the government’s obligation to assure full employment. However, some degree of unemployment is always present in a dynamic economy, mainly as a result of shifts in product demands. Some industries are contracting while others are expanding, thus, some workers are laid off while others are hired.There are times, however, when significant unemployment happens, and typically, it is due to some type of the government action discussed above. Now, if the reason for unemployment is the normal downturn in the business cycle, government intervention by providing jobs to those displaced by the downturn will in essence prevent the natural adjustment of wage rates. This will in turn create an unbearable burden to the taxpayers, and the only way out would be further budget deficits and inflation.Thus, to assure that all these bad things do not happen, the author suggests that the situation be allowed to take its course in a natural manner. Demand and prices decrease will force the natural reduction in wages, which in turn will eventually result in an increase in employment. The idea of income redistribution has been proposed by some, especially those with socialistic tendencies. Any forced redistribution will create an environment where those receiving the guaranteed minimum income, whatever level it is, would have no incentive to work if it exceed what they could earn in the open market by working.And, there are a substantial number of people that even if they could earn a bit more would prefer to live in extreme poverty than to work. This problem gets worse the higher the income guarantee, as more people would see no reason to work. The above are the main actions that conflict with the function of a free competitive market in the U. S. ; and, according to the author, these actions must be removed since history has shown that it is the free competitive market that has been the driving force to reduce poverty in the Western world in the last two centuries.The government’s duties should be limited mainly to activities that protect private property, and the citizens’ safety (law enforcement); and to some degree, the preservation of the country infrastructure. However, Hazlitt recognizes the government’s need to provide adequate help to the poor to assure that they are not deprived from the minimum for their subsistence; but the government must be careful not to provide more than the absolutely necessary to prevent the needy from not working. Lastly, Hazlitt warns that it is only possible to conquer poverty, but not to eliminate it.This is because poverty is an individual issue; thus, it cannot b e stopped more than death can not be prevented. Hazlitt’s model is the capitalistic, laissez faire approach. Although the U. S. has not followed a pure capitalistic approach, as he claims, it represents one of the best models of a political system that has tried to comply with his philosophy. Given that, it is surprising that roughly 13 to 17% of Americans still live below the federal poverty line at any given point in time, and roughly 40% fall below the poverty line at some point within a 10-year time span. 2] Although these statistics are not encouraging, the author makes a convincing case against the other extreme, socialism, or total government control, and was undoubtedly proven right with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. A recent political movement, the Third Way, which attempts to take the positive things from both capitalism and socialism, led by world leaders such as Tony Blair and Bill Clinton is currently being discussed in the political arena as an alternative to mitigate some of the weaknesses of both sys tems, see Whyman (2010). So far the poverty discussion still goes on. Reducing Poverty in Underdeveloped World Hazlitt bases his government model on historical data in the US; thus, one should not automatically assume that it could also apply to the underdeveloped world. In fact, there are many different opinions on remedies for poor countries, which not only involve internal prescriptions, but also suggestions on the interaction between the underdeveloped and developed world, and the shape that foreign aid should take. A summary of some of the most significant views are described below.Easterly (2008) takes Hazlitt’s views and using Hayek’s thoughts of the market process describes his approach to poor nations as follows: To conquer poverty, the creativity and spontaneity of market participants create the most effective system. This is an unpredictable bottoms up process that happens without any central organization intervening and it cannot be dictated from the top, as organizations like IMF a nd World Bank attempt to impose without much knowledge of the country’s local culture, issues, etc.The author explains that where the government political system allows it, the free market is able to produce the big hits in the export markets that have historically helped create wealth in poor countries. Examples are the great success in Kenya exporting cut flowers, or cotton suits in Fiji, both very much unpredicted before the businesses started. Studies have shown that capital income is highly correlated with economic and political liberty; it is liberty that causes prosperity. Therefore, the solution to poverty is to let the market act freely, without government interference.Why, then, it is so hard to convince the world of this fact and the developed world’s approach continues to impose failed tops down solutions? Because growth rates are so volatile in these countries, even for periods lasting a decade, that anyone with a specific agenda can as easily use data to prove that either liberty or the lack of it is the key success factor. O’Rourke (1998) agrees with Easterly. After visiting countries like Albania, Sweden, Russia, Tanzania, and Cuba, he concluded that it is the suppression of individual liberties that creates poverty.His view is that wealth can only be cr eated when there is enough production of goods and services, and this can only occur when there are incentives, which can only exist in an environment of liberty. Similar thoughts are offered by Ravier (2009). Referring to Hayek’s work, he states that globalization, an important element of free and voluntary trade, creates wealth and peace among the nations. De Soto (nd), another free market economist, in his book, The Other Path,[3] focuses on private property, and more specifically, the lack of government protection of property belonging to the poor as a key issue that keeps them in poverty.As a case in point, property, owned by the poor of Peru for generations, is very rarely legally registered, preventing this extremely important them from gaining a meaningful presence in the market, and without it, any possibility of acquiring wealth. [4] The point is that as long as the poor are not part of the legal market economy, the nation cannot extract itself from poverty, and in most underdeveloped countries, the poor remains outside the system all together.The elite minority enjoys all the benefits of the legal system and prospers, while t he poor cannot, and stay in poverty. In Peru, where De Soto’s work is conducted, in order to survive, to protect their assets, and to do as much business as possible, the poor create their own rules, but operate outside the formal system, with all its inefficiencies, shortcomings, etc. Since this group constitutes a large percent of the country’s population, this problem severely impacts the society at large. The issue, according to De Soto, is worldwide among underdeveloped countries.He estimates that about US$ 10 trillion of dead capital could be put to use should the properties be properly legalized. Reinert (2007) and Chang (2008) consent with the above authors’ positions on liberty and private property; however, they add limited protectionism to the box of solutions, at least until these underdeveloped countries can face global competition. They explain their case as follows: To reduce poverty, sustained growth is necessary and it can only be delivered through industrialization. Why?Reinert explains that activities like agriculture, so predominant in poor countries, are subject to diminishing returns, while manufacturing is subject to increasing return. As an example, should country X decide to be in the carrot business, after all the ideal land for carrot production is used, any additional, and not as good land will become more expensive to use, increasing the production cost without any compensation for it in the market. This is not the case for manufacturing, where any addition unit being sold reduced the marginal cost and increases the return.Thus to grow, each country must choose an industrial path, then carefully nature it until it can compete in the world markets. This requires upgrading the relevant technological and managerial capabilities of the country, and while these efforts are pursued, the chosen industry/industries must be protected. Chang compares economic protectionism to the protection that parents must provide to their young children until they are old enough to face life by themselves. He claims that without this protection, these industries would have little chance to survive.He gives South Korea as a good example. Presenting South Korea as a model, Chang relates his own story: born in 1963 in one of the poorest countries in the world, while now it is one of the richest. He explains that during the years between the 1960s and the 1980s, when the major industrialization took place in South Korea, traditional economists would have the world believe that neo-liberal strategies were the reason. [5] However, according to Chang, Korea nurtured the new industries through tariff protection, subsidies, and other forms of government support.The banks were owned by the government, thus the flow of credit was all under its control, and further, some of the model industries were even owned by the government. [6] Its economy was based on export; however, Chang explains that this did not necessarily require free trade. Japan and China prove that. Both authors warn that free trade is only suitable for countries at the same level of development, meaning that poor countries should hold some sort of protectionism until they can fully compete.Chang reminds the reader that South Korea is not a unique case, he claims that practically all of today’s developed countr ies, including Britain and the U. S. , at one time or another, were forced to follow policies that go against neo-liberal economics. Conclusions Although, there is enough disagreement on how to conquer poverty, there is no question that the economists agree on at least two basic points are of paramount importance, the need for a free market and government protection of private property.Beyond that, one thing is clear, the struggle to reduce poverty is still very much an unresolved issue, and the solutions are highly debatable, may be because each country presents a different challenge, a unique culture with different internal considerations, needing different medicine. References Chang, Ho-Joon (2008). Bad Samaritans. Bloomsbury Press, New York. De Soto, H (no date). Commanding Heights, PBS interview. Retrieved Oct 10, 2010 from http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/pdf/int_hernandodesoto. pdf Easterly, W. (2008). Hayek vs.The Development Experts. Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. Retrieved Oct 10, 2010 from http://www. manhattan-institute. org/html/hayek2008. htm Hazlitt, Henry (1973). The Conquest of Poverty. Arlington House, New Rochelle, N. Y. O’Rourke, P. J. (1998). Eat the Rich, Atlantic Monthly Press, N. Y. Ravier, Adrian (2009). Globalization and Peace: A Hayekian Perspective. Libertarian Papers, Vol. 1, Art. No. 10. Reinert, E. (2007). How Rich Countries Got Rich and Why Poor Countries Stay Poor. Constable, UK. Whyman, P. (2010). Third Way Economics. Palgrave McMillan.Retrieved October 10, 2010 from http://www. palgrave. com/pdfs/1403920656. pdf ———————– [1] Hazlitt discussing poverty solutions states: Man throughout history has been searching for the cure for poverty, and all that time the cure has been before his eyes. Fortunately, as far at least as it applied to their actions as individuals, the majority of men instinctively recognized it—which was why they survived. That individual cure was Work and Saving. In terms of social organization, there evolved spontaneously from this, as a result of no one’s conscious planning, a ystem of division of labor, freedom of exchange, and economic cooperation, the outlines of which hardly became apparent to our forebears until two centuries ago. That system is now known either as Free Enterprise or as Capitalism, according as men wish to honor or disparage it. [2] Wikipedia. See http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States#cite_note-0 [3] See http://www. amazon. com/Other-Path-Economic-Answer-Terrorism/dp/0465016103 [4] Referring to the poor’s unregistered property, De Soto states: For it is in the legal system where property documents are created and standardized according to law.That documentation builds a public memory that permits society to engage in such crucial economic activities as identifying and gaining access to information about individuals, their assets, their titles, rights, charges and obligations; establishing the limits of liability for businesses; knowing an asset’s previous economic situation; assuring protection of third parties; and quantifying and valuing assets and rights.These public memory mechanisms in turn facilitate such opportunities as access to credit, the establishment of systems of identification, the creation of systems for credit and insurance information, the provision for housing and infrastructure, the issue of s hares, the mortgage of property, and a host of other economic activities that drive a modern market economy 5] Neo-liberalism  is a market-driven  approach based on neoclassical theories of economics  (aka  capitalism) that maximize the role of the private business sector in determining the political and economic priorities of the state. [6] Chang states: â€Å"The Korean economic miracle was the result of a clever and pragmatic mixture of market incentives and state direction† How to cite Fight Against World Poverty, Papers

What is a Dictionary Definition and Meaning free essay sample

A dictionary, sometimes known as a wordbook, is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often arranged alphabetically (or by radical and stroke for ideographic languages), which may include information on definitions, usage, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, translation, etc.[1] or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, sometimes known as a lexicon.[1] It is a lexicographical product which shows inter-relationships among the data.[2]A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a complete range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether lexicology and terminology are two different fields of study. In theory, general dictionaries are supposed[citation needed] to be semasiological, mapping word to definition, while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be onomasiological, first identifying concepts and then establishing the terms used to designate them. We will write a custom essay sample on What is a Dictionary? Definition and Meaning or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In practice, the two approaches are used for both types.[3] There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance bilingual (translation) dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms (thesauri), and rhyming dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose monolingual dictionary.[4]There is also a contrast between prescriptive or descriptive dictionaries; the former reflect what is seen as correct use of the language while the latter reflect recorded actual use. Stylistic indications (e.g. informal or vulgar) in many modern dictionaries are also considered by some to be less than objectively descriptive.[5]Although the first recorded dictionaries date back to Sumerian times (these were bilingual dictionaries), the systematic study of dictionaries as objects of scientific interest themselves is a 20th-century enterprise, called lexicography, and largely initiated by Ladislav Zgusta.[4] The birth of the new discipline was not without controversy, the practical dictionary-makers being sometimes accused by others of astonishing lack of method and critical-self reflection.[6]